The need to read and interpret the heavens has encouraged astronomy in Asia for nearly four thousand years. Astronomers tracked the complex relationships between the sun and the moon for producing calendars to mark each dynastic reign. Because ancient Chinese peoples believed that the heavens reflected events and relationships on earth, they associated heavenly bodies with earthly counterparts. Just as life on earth revolved around the emperor, the heavens turned around the pole star. The heavens signalled the time for festivals and holidays, and reflected the events of ordinary life as well. The stars informed China's people of their duties to till, sow, and harvest, and reminded them to make offerings to their ancestors.

This exhibit displays both celestial and terrestrial objects in areas colored dark sky blue and jade green, respectively, to evoke these parallel realms. As you move through the exhibit, notice how the items displayed refer to heavenly or earthly domains.

This rare and fragile chart, deriving from the famous Suzhou Astronomical Chart of 1247, displays the Milky Way and the distinctive Chinese constellations. It results from an extraordinary amount of labor. The artist first drew the chart on paper. The chart was then transferred onto a large stone, series of smaller stones, or perhaps even wood blocks, using ink placed in small holes in the paper. Then, over the course of a month or more, a master craftsman chiseled out the patterns.

The surface was then ready for the mass production of this star chart. This stage involved mulberry paper saturated with water. After placing this paper on top of the block, the printer used a soft hammer to press the paper into the chiseled pattern. When blue ink was carefully stamped onto the paper, only the portion of the paper not pressed into the block received ink. That is, the text and all white portions of the chart were pressed into the patterns carved out. Look closely at these white portions to see the care and precision of this work. Finally, the paper was lifted from the surface and placed onto a firmer paper backing. At the bottom left corner, you can see where the top layer has eroded, leaving only this backing.

The text of this chart was first written more than 800 years ago on the Suzhou Chart. It describes a variety of astronomical topics, such as the sun, moon, and planets, as well as the correspondence between the heavens and the earth in terms of yin and yang. Each topic begins with a heading indicated by characters surrounded by a white frame or cartouche. Recalling the process by which the chart was made, imagine the painstaking care needed to produce these headings. A few errors in assembling this work (including the mis-matching of adjacent sections, one of which is placed at the beginning of the text instead of at the end) add to the interest and mystique of this lovely piece.

This Japanese scroll displays terrestrial and celestial surveying instruments and activities. Portraits of these activities frame images of the instruments. The first, rightmost illustration shows the measuring of the stars in the middle of the night. The next images show various instruments, including a mathematical quadrant, a magnetic compass, and a telescope. Characters describe instruments of two types, Western and Japanese ones of Chinese origin. The maps describe the synthesis of Western and Japanese / Chinese methods, and instruments to measure and chart the earth and the sky. The images displayed change every few weeks in order to minimize light damage to the delicate paper.

Known as hun i, the "celestial sphere instrument," the armillary sphere appeared in China more than 2000 years ago. Astronomers used this important tool to determine coordinates for celestial bodies and to teach astronomical principles. When connected to a mechanism run by falling water, it operated as an accurate timekeeping device. One built more than 700 years ago in Beijing still survives, now installed at the Purple Mountain Observatory in Nanjing.

This simplified planisphere illustrates the Chinese concept of lunar mansions, divisions of the sky that correspond roughly to the daily path of the moon through the sky as seen more than 4000 years ago. The varying widths reflect the changing direction of the earth's rotational axis. Each lunar mansion is shown with its characteristic star and star grouping. The star in red is not necessarily a bright star but rather one chosen for its location as the marker of the boundary of the lunar mansion. As usual, the heavenly counterpart of the imperial court is found at the center of the chart.

The Chinese grouped stars not according to their apparent brightness, but rather according to their location. These stars are represented by red circles of equal size, not because of the similarity of brightness but because of their equal astrological importance. These star trios are represented in a similar and consistent pattern, regardless of their varying appearance in the sky.

Although the arrival in China of the Jesuits in the 1500s led to the adoption of Western European astronomical techniques, Chinese astronomers retained their ancient star groupings and their astrological significations. This colored planispheric chart from 1802 shows this quite clearly, along with the 28 traditional lunar mansions (hsiu) located in the outer ring.

The original observatory in Peking (now Beijing) dates from 1279. Upon request by Chinese astronomers, the Jesuits began to refit the observatory in 1669, taking down the old instruments and replacing them with new ones. Six new astronomical tools appeared in 1673, under the supervision of Jesuit priest Ferdinand Verbiest, who illustrated them in many of his volumes. This image shows the first stage of the refurbished observatory, which includes the following (moving clockwise from the top): steps leading to observatory (A), a sextant (H), a quadrant supported on a vertical shaft (G), a horizon circle for azimuth measurements with pointers supported from overhead (F), an equatorial armillary supported on the back of a dragon (C), a large celestial globe (D), and an ecliptic or zodiacal armillary sphere supported on four dragon heads (E). The room at top (B) is called a "retiring room.".

This beautiful chart, perhaps from Masaki Masafusa's Map of Chinese Constellations, shows the Milky Way in white against a blue starry background. The offset yellow circle indicates the ecliptic, the yearly path of the sun moving against that background. The inner, dotted circle marks the boundary of the stars always visible from a particular location, probably Beijing. Notice that the groupings of stars are completely different from Western constellations. The lines radiating from the center mark the boundaries of the 28 lunar mansions.

This planisphere from the Atlas Takamagahara Zusetsu shows the light-reflecting side of each of the planets at different places in their orbits. It includes moons orbiting Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, but not Neptune, as well as the paths of two comets.

This intricate arrangement of volvelle dials helped Japanese astronomers / astrologers to keep track of astronomical events and coordinate them with their terrestrial, or earthly, counterparts. The concentric circles remind one of the geomancer's board seen also in this exhibit.

A skaphe or bowl sundial is made for a particular latitude. Scrolled copper bands, attached to an iron stem, form the gnomon or pointer, which points to the north celestial pole. The tip of the gnomon shadow indicates the time as noted on the hour lines inscribed in the bowl.

This beautiful globe shows clusters of stars as grouped in China perhaps 4000 years ago. Like others, it contains a clock-drive invisible to the viewer. Unlike other celestial globes, which display the hemisphere of stars visible at a particular moment, this unusual copper globe shows solar time and seasonal time, as indicated by markings on the ecliptic. The stars numbered on this globe correspond to an 18th-century Chinese star catalogue.

The base of this sundial, made of silvered brass, rests on three leveling screws, originally holding glass spheres or semi-precious jewels. The inset compass, used for north / south alignment, includes an enameled 4-point windrose. Like other horizontal sundials, it is made for a specific location or latitude. This piece marks hours with black Arabic numerals and red Chinese characters written on an enameled copper arc. The string, a splice of original and modern fibers, casts a shadow on this arc, indicating the time.

This silver skaphe or bowl sundial consists of a small skaphe with a central gnomon and magnetic compass for alignment. The few hour lines marked would tell time only approximately.

The hinged box closes for protection.

Diptych (meaning "folded into two leaves") sundials often function for a single latitude; this example was made for the latitude of Beijing. It is commonly known in the west as a Needham Type-A dial, named after the 20th century historian Joseph Needham, author of an extensive history of Chinese science. Known as the "foreign dial" in China, this type appeared after the 16th century arrival of Jesuit missionaries; a Presbyterian missionary donated this particular piece to the Adler. This attractive instrument includes an ivory lunar volvelle (circular dial), equatorial sundial, and moondial with aperture indicating lunar phases.

This equatorial dial includes hours divided into 8 parts. China used equal hours numbered twice from 1-12 at least a thousand years before this practice began in the West. Notice how the movable pierced brass resembles a ship's vessel. The disk of the dial is mounted on a pair of metal arcs that slide within the slot of a cup. Once again, a compass provides proper alignment.

Although this piece is missing a few parts, it is likely a type of universal ring dial. The circular base, with inset compass, allows for north / south alignment. The set screws hold the movable, flattened semicircular ring in the equatorial plane. The gnomon, likely suspended in the inner ring, would then cast a shadow on the semicircular ring, marked with hours.

This distinctive ivory dial stores in a horn case lined with its original silk. It consists of a plate inclined parallel to the earth's equatorial plane. To make it a universal dial usable at any latitude, the plate adjusts to keep the gnomon pointing to the north celestial pole, found with the help of a clearly marked compass needle. This arrangement probably goes back to the late Sung dynasty 1500 years ago; it may go back, in some form, nearly 2500 years.

This wooden equatorial sundial, a traditional Chinese form, uses a copper pin as a gnomon and a brass strut to incline the plate. A compass provides north / south alignment. Unlike western versions of this sundial, which list cities at each latitude for the proper inclination of the plate, Chinese dials refer to the local chhi' or calendar system used in regions of different latitudes.

The Chinese used a magnetic compass for more than 1000 years before its introduction to Europeans in the late 12th century. This one would have been used by a mariner. Its outer rim includes a 24-point windrose and two holes for alignment.

The ancient art of feng-shui, still practiced today, involves determining the harmonious balance of yin and yang in nature and artifice. In order to infer this harmony, one may use a geomancer's board, which uses lines that correspond either to yin (broken line) or to yang (unbroken line). Often, the colored lines refer to yin, the black ones to yang. The foundation of this instrument comes from the 64 hexagrams described nearly 3000 years ago and summarized in the I Ching, or Book of Changes, though there are many other systems of arranging and interpreting these hexagrams.

Some geomancy boards list 64 combinations of 6 sets of broken or whole lines; this example uses 3 sets or trigrams, as well as 20 concentric circles. An explanatory table on its underside enables its user to determine, among other things, the harmony of yin and yang for the construction of buildings or arrangements within them. Because these harmonies are reflected in the heavens, geomancy forms a part of astronomy..

Curated by Dr. Marvin Bolt, Adler Planetarium Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum